językoznastwo v2

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Frage American English Antworten American English
productivity of language
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The ability to create an infinite number of new sentences that are also grammatically correct
Give an example of a phrase structure rule
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S-> NP + VP NP=N + AdjP
The deep structure and surface structure
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The deep structure is an abstract level of structural organization in which all the elements determining structural interpretation are represented. • That same deep structure can be the source of many other surface structures
lexical rules
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specify which words can be used when we rewrite constituents
transformational rules
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Transform sentences, e.g., from statements to questions
example of a transformational rule
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Statement: "She is happy." → Question: "Is she happy?
semantics
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is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences (Semantics is concerned with objective or general meaning)
two types of meaning
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Conceptual and associative meaning
conceptual meanng
(denotative, literal, dictinary)
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covers basic, essential components of meaning that are conveyed by the literal use of a word
needle - ‘thin, sharp, steel instrument’ (basic components of the word)
associative
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all types of associations or connotations different people might have attached to a word
semantic features
...
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– crucial elements or features of meaning
Example: to be a subject of a sentence a noun must be animate Boy (+animate) Hamburger (-animate)
semantic roles
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The roles of sentence participants, e.g., agent, theme
The boy kicked the ball. • The agent - ‘the entity that performs the action’ (the boy) • The theme (the patient) – ‘the entity that is involved in or affected by the action’ (the ball)
7 basic semantic roles
...
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the
1 agent, 2 theme, 3 instument, 4 experiencer, 5 localisation, 6 source, 7 goal
The agent
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‘the entity that performs the action
The theme (the patient)
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‘the entity that is involved in or affected by the action’
The instrument -
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an entity used to perform an action
The experiencer
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an entity (a person) who has a feeling, perception or state; s/he is not performing any action
the location, source, goal
.
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.
The location - where an entity is (on the table, in the room) • The source – where the entity moves from (from Chcago) • The goal - where the entity moves to (to New Orlean)
lexical relations
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The relationships between words
7 types of lexical relations
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Synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, homonymy, polysemy, metonymy, collocations.
synonymy
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Two or more words with very closely related meanings; they can be substituted for each other in sentences
homophones
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Words that sound the same but have different meanings, e.g., "bare" and "bear"
prototypes
.
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The idea of ‘the characteristic instance’ of a category
The best examples of a category, e.g., "sparrow" as a prototype of a bird.
antonymy
Antonyms are divided into two main types: • ‘gradable’ (opposites along a scale) • ‘non-gradable’ (direct opposites)
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Two forms with opposite meanings
alive/dead, big/small, fast/slow, happy/sad, hot/cold, long/short, male/female, married/single, old/new, rich/poor, true/false
hyponymy
.
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When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another, the relationship is described
animal/dog, dog/poodle, vegetable/carrot, flower/rose, tree/banyan
homonymy
.
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when one form (written or spoken) has two or more unrelated meanings
bank (of a river) – bank (financial institution) bat (flying creature) – bat (used in sports) mole (on skin) – mole (small animal) pupil (at school) – pupil (in the eye) race (contest of speed) – race (ethnic group)
Homophones
.
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When two or more different (written) forms have the same pronunciation
bare/bear, meat/meet, flour/flower, pail/pale, right/write, sew/so and to/too/two.
polysemy
.
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Two or more words with the same form and related meanings
Head - the object on top of the body, on top of a glass of beer, person at the top of a company or department. • Foot (of person, of bed, of mountain) or • Run (person does, water does, colors do)
metonymy
.
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close connection in everyday experience
a container–contents relation (bottle/water, can/juice), • a whole–part relation (car/wheels, house/roof) • a representative–symbol relationship (king/crown, the President/the White House
collocations
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a predictable combination of words‘; words frequently occurring together
Hammer – nail • Table – chair • Butter – bread • Needle – thread • Salt – pepper
categories of antonyms
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complementary, gradable, and relational
gradable - opposite along on a scale (big-small, old-new, early-late) non-gradable - direct opposite (black-white, dead-alive, true-false) reelational - frtom the same family (parent-child, teacher-student, give-recive)
special properties of human language (natural language)
.
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Duality, productivity, cultural transmission, arbitrariness
Displacement • Arbitrariness • Productivity • Cultural transmission • Duality
What are the areas in the brain responsible for speech
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Broca’s area (speech production) and Wernicke’s area (understanding the speech)
arcuate fasciculus
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is a bundle of nerve fibers which forms a connection between Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas. • Discoverd by Wernicke
s motor cortex
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an area in the brain that controls movement of the muscles. The part of the motor cortex that controls the articulatory muscles of the face, jaw, tongue and larynx is located close to Broca’s area
3 difficulties in speech production
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• The tip of the tongue phenomenon • A slip of the tongue • A slip of the ear
The tip of the tongue phenomenon
malapropisms
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We feel that we know the word but it doesn’t want to come to the surface
.
A slip of the tongue
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An unintentional error in speaking, where someone says something different from what they intended. It often involves mixing up sounds, words, or sentence structures noble tons of soil --- noble sons of toil
A speech error where a person unintentionally says a different word or phrase than intended.
A Slip of the Ear
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A mishearing of spoken words
aphasia
Broca’s aphasia • Wernicke’s aphasia • Conduction aphasia
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an impairment of language function caused by localized brain damage; it results in difficulties understanding and/or producing linguistic forms
.
Broca’s aphasia
.
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a reduced amount of speech,  distorted articulation,  slow, often effortful speech
,  lexical morphemes (e.g. nouns, verbs).  frequent omission of functional morphemes (e.g. articles, prepositions) and inflections (e.g. plural - s, past tense -ed)  speech is ‘agrammatic’. I eggs and eat and drink coffee breakfast
Wernicke’s aphasia
related to difficulties in auditory comprehension, sometimes called ‘sensory aphasia’.
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-very fluent speech which is, however, often difficult to make sense of.  very general terms are used, even in response to questions for specific information.
 difficulties finding the correct word (anomia); to deal with problem → describing the objects or their puropse
Conduction aphasia
Caused by the damage to the arcuate fasciculus
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sometimes mispronounce words, but usually do not have articulation problems.  they are fluent, but rhythm may be disrupted due to pauses
comprehension of spoken words is good.  repeating a word or phrase (spoken by someone else) is problematic.
critical period
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A period in childhood during which language acquisition occurs most efficiently; after this period, learning language becomes more difficult.
first few years of life is the crucial time in which an individual can acquire a first language
difference between acquiring a language and learning a language
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acquiring a language natural process when a child learns the language throught the contact with enviroment without formal instructions
learning- aquiring the language through formal way, from books, lessons, grammal rules
LAD
chomsky
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The Language Acquisition Device – a hypothetical mechanism in a child's brain that facilitates language acquisition
allows children laquiring the language quickly and effortcently
What does it mean that interaction is required in first language acquisition
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Children need to interact with others to effectively acquire language
listening is not enough to master the languag. children must particioate in interactions with other people
What does it mean that cultural transmission is required in first language acquisition
.
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Language is passed down through generations in a social and cultural context
how the concepts from one culture are passed down from generation to generation
CDS
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Child-Directed Speech – the way adults speak to children, characterized by simple vocabulary, clear articulation, and repetition

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